| Thermal responsive | Babakhanova et al. | Liquid crystal elastomer coating with programmed response of surface profile | Nat. Commun. 2018 | Thermally induced surface morphing via photoaligned liquid crystal elastomers, enabling reversible elevation and depression through spatially programmed molecular orientation. |
| Cao and Dong | Programmable soft electrothermal actuators based on free-form printing of the embedded heater | Soft Matter 2021 | Spatially programmable surface deformation using EHD-printed embedded Bi/Sn heaters, enabling localized bending, folding, and twisting via electrothermal actuation. |
| Electromagnetic responsive | Bai et al. | Dynamically reprogrammable surface with selfevolving shape morphing | Nature 2022 | Electromagnetic shape morphing via serpentine gold-polyimide mesh with programmable current control, enabling sub-second reconfiguration through Lorentz-force actuation and real-time feedback optimization. |
| Ni et al. | Soft shape-programmable surfaces by fast electromagnetic actuation of liquid metal networks | Nat. Commun. 2022 | Fast, reconfigurable surfacem orphing via Lorentz-force actuation of liquid metal networks, with data-driven shape control enabled by 3D-DIC-based actuation mapping and shape fixation through metal solidification. |
| Kim et al. | Shape morphing programmable systems for enhanced control in low-velocity flow applications | Adv. Intel. Sys. 2025 | An electromagnetically programmable surface based on Lorentz force actuation was developed and applied for flow control. PIV experiments were conducted in a small-scale wind tunnel, and the wake flow field was quantitatively analyzed through PSD and POD modes in response to real-time surface morphing. |
| Photo responsive | Ford et al. | Movement with light: Photoresponsive shape morphing of printed liquid crystal | Matter 2024 | Light-driven programmable actuation via AuNR–LCE composites, enabling multi-modal shape morphing through localized photothermal transitions and DIW-printed anisotropic architectures with closed-loop laser control. |
| Pent et al. | Reprogrammable shape morphing hydrogel modulated by synergistic photochromism and photoactuation | Chem. Eng. J. 2025 | Light-programmed hydrogel actuation via CdS QD-mediated photochromism and photothermal conversion, enabling spatially selective, reversible shape morphing and logic-level functions without mechanical reprogramming. |
| Sheikhi et al. | 4D Printing of self-healing, thermally, and near-infrared light-responsive granular hydrogels with segmental directed movement for soft robotic | ACS Appl. Polym. Mater. 2025 | 4D-printed modular hydrogel actuator combining NIR-triggered shape memory and self-healing via multifunctional microgels, enabling segmental, spatially selective actuation through localized photothermal conversion. |