Table 1. Types of molecular interactions, their energy ranges, and characteristics

Category	Energy ()	Characteristics
Hydrogen bonding	10–40	High directionality and selectivity: Plays a key role in stabilizing secondary structures
π-π stacking	5–50	Electronic interaction between the delocalized π-electron clouds: Guides structures growth direction
Electrostatic interaction	5–40	Long-range attraction/repulsion between charged groups: High directionality and selectivity
Hydrophobic interaction	0.5–5	Entropy-driven water exclusion effect
Van der Waals force	0.5–5	Induced by local asymmetry in electron motion